Mpox has the potential to become a significant global health threat if taken too lightly, according to scientists at the University of Surrey. In a letter published in Nature Medicine, researchers highlight how mpox — traditionally spread from animals to humans — is now showing clear signs of sustained human-to-human transmission.
Mpox is a viral infection caused by a virus that belongs to the same family as smallpox.
The virus can cause a painful rash, fever, and swollen glands and, in some cases, lead to more serious illness.
Mpox usually spreads through close contact with an infected person or animal.
Carlos Maluquer de Motes, Reader in Molecular Virology at the University of Surrey, said:
“The most recent outbreaks show that intimate contact is now a significant way the virus spreads. That shift in how it’s transmitted is leading to longer transmission chains and lasting outbreaks.”
The article notes that this change coincided with the rapid spread of clade IIb (a clade is a group of viruses that share a common ancestor) mpox viruses, but different clade I variants are now on the rise too.
Researchers are also concerned because clade I viruses are thought to be more aggressive.
These viruses appear to be accumulating specific genetic mutations — driven by enzymes in the human body — that may be changing viral properties, so the longer these viruses circulate amongst us, the higher the chances these mutations help mpox adapt to humans.
Although mpox was once mainly seen in Central Africa, the virus caused an outbreak worldwide in 2022 and is now causing outbreaks in multiple sub-Saharan countries.
While it currently affects adults the most, the researchers stress that it has the potential to spread among other groups, including children, a group at greater risk of serious illness — although sustained transmission in children has not yet been reported.
Dr Maluquer de Motes added:
“Mpox control has to climb up the global health agenda. We have limited diagnostic tools and even fewer antiviral treatments. We urgently need better surveillance and local or regional capacity to produce what we need — otherwise, we are at risk of future epidemics.”
Unlike smallpox, mpox has an animal reservoir, meaning it can’t be fully eradicated. The authors warn that unless international action is taken now — including investment in point-of-care testing and new treatments — mpox will continue to re-emerge and threaten global health.
Skin cell (keratinocyte)
This normal human skin cell was treated with a growth factor that triggered the formation of specialised protein structures that enable the cell to move. We depend on cell movement for such basic functions as wound healing and launching an immune response. Credit: Torsten Wittmann, University of California, San Francisco
In a study published in Nature, researchers at Karolinska Institutet and SciLifeLab, among others, have identified a new mechanism for how cells deal with stress. This could have implications for treating certain hereditary, neurodegenerative diseases, but may also be relevant for future cancer treatment.
When cells are exposed to stress, such as lack of nutrients or oxygen, a process called the integrated stress response (ISR) is activated. This process helps cells adapt and survive, for example by affecting the production of different proteins.
Researchers have now discovered an alternative stress response, called s-ISR (split ISR), which results in changes in the expression of certain genes that are important for the cell’s energy balance. One of these genes, PCK2, affects the conversion of oxaloacetate to phosphoenolpyruvate, a substance important in the body’s metabolism of sugars and the production of amino acids such as serine and glycine. These amino acids are the building blocks of proteins that are essential for many functions in the body.
“Our discovery challenges the previous understanding of how cells handle stress and opens up new possibilities for understanding and treating diseases where the cells’ stress response is affected,” says Ola Larsson, researcher at the Department of Oncology-Pathology, Karolinska Institutet and the Science for Life Laboratory (SciLifeLab).
May affect cancer cells
One such group of diseases is leukodystrophies – inherited disorders in which the white matter of the brain, the myelin, breaks down. One of these diseases is called VWMD (vanishing white matter disease) and is caused by mutations in a protein involved in the cells’ stress response. Researchers have shown that cells with these mutations activate s-ISR, which can affect their survival under stress.
“Another disease characterised by high stress levels is cancer, and s-ISR may therefore be important for the survival of cancer cells,” says Ola Larsson.
A study from the University of Ottawa’s Human and Environmental Physiology Research Unit (HEPRU) has confirmed that the limits for human thermoregulation – the ability to maintain a stable body temperature in extreme heat – are lower than previously thought.
This research, led by Dr Robert D. Meade, former Senior Postdoctoral Fellow and Dr Glen Kenny, Director of HEPRU and professor of physiology, highlights the urgent need to address the impacts of climate change on human health.
The study, published in the journal PNAS, found that many regions may soon experience heat and humidity levels that exceed the safe limits for human survival. “Our research provided important data supporting recent suggestions that the conditions under which humans can effectively regulate their body temperature are actually much lower than earlier models suggested,” states Kenny. “This is critical information as we face increasing global temperatures.”
Utilizing a widely used technique known as thermal-step protocols, Meade and his team exposed 12 volunteers to various heat and humidity conditions to identify the point at which thermoregulation becomes impossible. What made this study different, was that participants returned to the laboratory for a daylong exposure to conditions just above their estimated limit for thermoregulation. Participants were subjected to extreme conditions, 42°C with 57% humidity, representing a humidex of approximately 62°C. “The results were clear. The participants’ core temperature streamed upwards unabated, and many participants were unable to finish the 9-hour exposure. These data provide the first direct validation of thermal step protocols, which have been used to estimate upper limits for thermoregulation for nearly 50 years”, says Meade.
“Our findings especially timely, given estimated limits for thermoregulation are being increasingly incorporated into large scale climate modelling,” explains Meade. “They also underscore the physiological strain experienced during prolonged exposure to extreme heat, which is becoming more common due to climate change.”
The implications of this research extend beyond academia. As cities prepare for hotter summers, understanding these limits can help guide health policies and public safety measures. “By integrating physiological data with climate models, we hope to better predict and prepare for heat-related health issues,” adds Kenny.
As the world grapples with the realities of climate change, this research aims to spark important conversations about our safety and adaptability in increasingly extreme environments.
April 2nd, 2025, Nairobi, Kenya – Africa stands at the forefront of a revolutionary shift in global health, driven by artificial intelligence (AI) and data science, according to a report released today from the Science for Africa Foundation (SFA Foundation), African institutions and research councils. The report is a first of its kind to comprehensively examine national-level perspectives across Africa on AI and data science for global health. The landscape presents an unprecedented view into the potential to improve AI governance in Africa to reduce the risk and stop the perpetuation of inequity.
Titled “Governance of Artificial Intelligence for Global Health in Africa”, the report is produced through the SFA Foundation’s Science Policy Engagement with Africa’s Research (SPEAR) programme as a culmination of a year-long effort involving convenings across Africa’s five regions, policy analysis and extensive surveys to identify policy gaps and opportunities in AI and data science for global health. Grounded in consultations across 43 African countries, the report incorporates insights from over 300 stakeholders, ensuring a comprehensive and inclusive approach to its findings.
“The global AI governance framework remains ill-suited to Africa’s unique needs and priorities,” said Prof. Tom Kariuki, Chief Executive Officer of the SFA Foundation. “Our report on AI in global health and data sciences champions a shift towards frameworks that reflect Africa’s context, ensuring ethical, equitable, and impactful applications of AI not only for our continent’s health challenges, but also to advance global health.”
Key findings and opportunities
The report identifies key trends, gaps, and opportunities in AI and data science for health across Africa:
Increasing national investments: Countries including Mauritius, Nigeria, Malawi, Ethiopia, Ghana, Rwanda, Senegal, and Tunisia have launched national AI programmes, while at least 39 African countries are actively pursuing AI R&D. Initiatives such as Rwanda’s Seed Investment Fund and Nigeria’s National Centre for AI and Robotics illustrate promising investments in AI startups.
Need for health-specific AI governance: Despite growing interest, there is a critical gap in governance frameworks tailored to health AI across Africa. While health is prioritised in AI discussions, specific frameworks for responsible deployment in health are still underdeveloped.
Inclusive AI policy development: Many existing AI policies lack gender and equity considerations. Closing these gaps is essential to prevent inequalities in access to AI advancements and health outcomes.
“Incorporating AI into healthcare is not just about technology—it is about enhancing our policy frameworks to ensure these advancements lead to better health outcomes for all Africans,” added Dr Uzma Alam, Programme Lead of the Science Policy Engagement with Africa’s Research (SPEAR) programme.
There are existing policy frameworks on which to build and/or consolidate governing of responsible AI and data science: At least 35 African countries have national STI and ICT as well as health research and innovation policy frameworks that contain policies applicable to the development and deployment of AI and data science.
There is a surge in African research on health AI and data science (big data): raising the need for equitable North-South R&D partnerships.
Recommendations and way forward
The report is expected to act as a catalyst for integrating AI into health strategies across the continent, marking a significant step forward in Africa’s journey toward leadership in global health innovation by calling for:
Adaptive and Inclusive AI Governance: The report calls for the integration of diverse perspectives spanning gender, urban-rural dynamics, and indigenous knowledge into AI health governance frameworks. It highlights the need for adaptive policies that balance innovation with equitable access, while leveraging regional collaboration and supporting the informal sector.
Innovative Funding and African Representation: Recognising the potential of local knowledge and practices, the report advocates for creative funding models to bolster AI research and development. It emphasises connecting the informal sector to markets and infrastructure to encourage grassroots innovation.
The Reinforcement of Science Diplomacy: To position Africa as a key player in global AI governance, the report recommends investing in programmes that align AI technologies with Africa’s health priorities. It also stresses the importance of amplifying Africa’s voice in shaping international standards and agreements through robust science-policy collaboration.
The Bridging of Gendered digital divide: To bridge the gendered digital divide in Africa. targeted initiatives are needed to address regional disparities and ensure gender inclusivity in the AI ecosystem. It’s essential to focus on programs that build capacity and improve access to resources.
“The report clearly outlines pathways for leveraging AI to bridge gaps and overcome current capacity constraints, while strengthening Africa’s role as a leader in shaping global health policy,” said Dr Evelyn Gitau, Chief Scientific Officer at the SFA Foundation. “This initiative showcases Africa’s potential to lead, innovate, and influence the global health ecosystem through AI.”
“We envision a world where AI advances health outcomes equitably, benefiting communities around the world. The Science for Africa Foundation’s report brings this vision to life by providing clarity on policy frameworks of AI and data science in global health. This empowers African voices to shape AI policy – not only directing healthcare innovation but setting a precedent for inclusive AI governance across sectors.” – Vilas Dhar, President of the Patrick J. McGovern Foundation.
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is common in military veterans but can affect anyone who has suffered or witnessed an extreme physical or emotional event, and it is very hard to treat. More than two-thirds of people fail to respond to treatment with drugs and therapy. Novel treatments are urgently needed.
A recent study from Israel has been showing promise with an unusual treatment: hyperbaric oxygen therapy (HBOT). This involves breathing pure oxygen in a pressurised chamber. HBOT is conventionally used to treat various physical ailments, such as carbon monoxide poisoning and decompression sickness (also known as “the bends”).
The study, published in The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, included 63 male veterans aged 25 to 60 who had suffered from PTSD for more than five years. Fifty-six subjects completed the study.
Participants in the study were randomly assigned (28 in each group) to either receive the active treatment with 60 sessions of hyperbaric oxygen at a pressure corresponding to diving 10 metres underwater, or a “sham treatment” (the control group), with air just above atmospheric pressure.
Treatments were 90 minutes a day, five days a week for 12 weeks and included air breaks, or simulated air breaks for people in the control group, every 20 minutes. The groups were similar (as expected in a randomised study) and could not correctly guess which treatment they received (this “blinding” helps remove bias from the study).
The group that received hyperbaric oxygen improved much more in self-reported symptoms related to PTSD and depression compared with the control group, immediately after the treatment and three months later.
Interestingly, changes could also be seen in certain areas of the brain associated with PTSD, with magnetic resonance imaging. The study reported some mild side-effects including resurfacing of traumatic memories, which in itself is very interesting and possibly part of the treatment effect.
The study is small but solid, with very interesting results.
More than half a century
Hyperbaric oxygen treatment has been used for more than half a century for its multiple effects on the immune system – in wound healing, infections and chronic inflammation. If we consider PTSD a wound with chronic inflammation, it is not difficult to imagine how it works, even if we do not fully understand the mechanisms involved.
In a wound, the damaged cells release molecules that trigger the immune system and attract stem cells involved in the healing process. This process uses lots of oxygen and the mitochondria that are the power plants of the cell need to work at full capacity.
If the healing is not completed, some cells close to the wound change their behaviour and close down power plants (mitochondria) to survive, instead of choosing to die and be replaced.
This is a natural survival mechanism, important for regeneration after an injury. Cells that are damaged but not lost go into survival mode that can be reversed when the imminent danger is over. But, for unknown reasons, some cells stay in survival mode.
This survival mode is called senescence or ageing. It happens normally as we age but with an injury, many cells can go into survival mode at the same time.
If we look at the body as an ecosystem or society, survival-mode cells are the elderly. The elderly cells are in a way smarter since they carry memories from previous traumas and do not work themselves to death when things get a bit rough. Unfortunately, they are also more sensitive to stress, are not as efficient, and still consume oxygen and energy.
The main reason for functional decline is that we gradually “rust” from the inside due to oxidative stress. We lose anti-oxidative capacity and get an increased number of elderly cells. The elderly cells have fewer mitochondria.
Many effective drugs are developed to reduce the symptoms of oxidative stress. However, since cells are programmed to preserve energy, the normal function may decline further if cells are not challenged. On the other hand, if we cannot reduce oxidative stress naturally, it may reduce our quality of life and lifespan.
Nerve cells in the brain live much longer than any other cell in the body. A brain cell can live 70 years or more. Regions of the brain called the amygdala, hippocampus and prefrontal cortex are important areas that are sensitive to oxidative stress and become dysfunctional in PTSD.
The immune cells patrol the body and their communication with the brain is important in PTSD. In the brain, astrocytes are immune cells with a long lifespan and memory that support and protect the brain cells.
In survival mode, due to mitochondrial dysfunction, this support becomes dysfunctional. It helps the brain cells to survive but is not good for optimal performance and causes chronic inflammation.
Astrocytes form a protective shield of antioxidants for elderly brain cells, which is difficult to overcome under normal circumstances. Hyperbaric oxygen has been shown to stimulate astrocytes to deliver new mitochondria to neurons in a cell model.
By challenging cells with hyperbaric oxygen, they gain enough energy for elderly cells to close down and die, and healthy cells become stronger and more efficient, which leaves room and energy for the next-generation workers (new stem cells). This reconditioning process may be what is at work in healing people with PTSD.
